Greenhouse Effect and Environmental Law Coursework

Greenhouse Effect and Environmental Law - Coursework Example By studying a range of subjects regarding the emission and its factors of Greenhouse which are relevant to all environmental policy issues: like the objectivity of scientific information, asymmetry of costs and benefits over space (regional impacts) and time; risk, uncertainty and ignorance; institutional power over information and policy I found myself deeply indulge in research and posing serious challenges to the current conceptualisation of pollution as a technical problem which requires an engineered solution. When I collected various data regarding the destruction caused by the Greenhouse Effect, I was not aware of the Kyoto Protocol current conditions, particularly the way it is implemented on the Framework Convention on Climate Change. The Kyoto Protocol on Climate Change reflects its drafters' understanding that changes in the global economy, globalization of markets, emerging global governance in the areas of trade and services, privatization and internationalization of the energy sector, and the ascending role of the private sector are changing the context rapidly in which environmental problems must be addressed. As a result, the formation of Kyoto Protocol took place. The main purpose of the Kyoto Protocol is to provide a shield against the environmental hazards and catastrophes to the new generation of environmental treaties; those treaties which are negotiated in an age of globalization and are aimed at influencing important economic activities such as energy production and fore ign investment in order to minimize their impacts on the environment. The potential economic effects of the Protocol are so far-reaching that it is sometimes referred to as an economic instrument disguised as an environmental agreement. The Kyoto Protocol contains three mechanisms allowing for international implementation, which are aimed at achieving the environmental goals of the treaty by affecting market-based activities. These mechanisms are related to (1) greenhouse-gas (GHG) emissions trading, (2) joint implementation (JI), and (3) the clean development mechanism (CDM). Each of these mechanisms specifically includes provisions relating to the participation of non-state actors in its implementation. (Chambers, 2001) The first part of the report lays the foundation for tackling various factors that lead to Environmental change like pollution, burning of fossil fuels etc. After analyzation it is evident that the Kyoto Protocol is still in an unfinished state and the actual details will not be known until analyzing the final outcome of the lawful negotiations of the Protocol, I feel it is important to establish certain criteria for the substantive discussion contained in later parts of the report. In the beginning, Wilkinson has set out the unresolved issues from Protocol and what can be expected in future negotiations. Later the report has gone into greater detail on the outstanding issues of various changes and changes in variations by describing the potential role of non-state actors or, as the Protocol describes, legal entities. It is thought that any future Protocol negotiation anticipates a greater role for these actors. Selma Stern has also focused on different problems that contribute

The Anatomy Of The Larynx And Its Role In Phonation

The Anatomy Of The Larynx And Its Role In Phonation Why are hoarseness and change to the pitch of the voice possible complications of thyroid surgery? Complications of thyroid surgery resulting in hoarseness and changes to the pitch of the voice are a result of injury to the laryngeal nerves. Laryngeal nerve damage can have an adverse effect on the muscles that move the vocal folds (cords), hence affecting the quality of voice. Although incidence of nerve injury during thyroid operations has decreased over the last two decades(*), appropriate precautions are routinely implemented during thyroid surgery, to minimise nerve damage. The thyroid vessels are closely associated with the laryngeal nerves. Therefore, an important consideration in achieving successful thyroid surgery is the detailed understanding of the anatomy and physiology (*) of the larynx and thyroid, coupled with the surgical approach itself. Anatomy of the larynx and its role in phonation The larynx is a highly intricate organ (Figure 1) which consists of a network of cartilage, intrinsic and extrinsic muscles, and connective tissue. It is situated in the anterior side of the neck in line with the third and sixth cervical vertebrae1. The cartilages found in the laryngeal wall are the single thyroid, epiglottis and cricoid cartilages, of which the thyroid is the largest cartilage; and the paired arytenoid, cuneiform and corniculate cartilages. The arytenoid cartilages have vocal process to provide the sites of attachment for the vocal ligament, thereby permitting opening and closing movement of the vocal folds in phonation. Thus the larynx plays an important role in phonation in speech. The vocal folds (true vocal cords) are the wedge-shaped structures that protrude from the lateral surfaces of the larynx, creating a narrow aperture across their air passage known as the rima glottidis. Sound is produced when the adductor muscles such as the cricoarytenoid muscle contract. The vocal folds are then brought closer together which closes the rima glottidis thereby providing high resistance to exhaled air from the lungs. Air is then forced through the bottom edge of the vocal cord followed by the upper edge. As air passes through the vocal folds the air pressure decreases producing a Bernouli Effect* which causes the lower edge to close followed by the upper edge and finally closing the vocal folds back together. Closure of the vocal folds produces smooth, regular vibrations that create sound. Sound is then converted to voice by vocal tract resonators which shape the sound to produce various resonances. Changes to the pitch of voice depend on the degree of tension and length of the vocal folds. Alterations to pitch are largely due to actions of intrinsic laryngeal muscles, namely the cricothyroid muscle. The cricothyroid muscle stretches the vocal ligaments by raising the arch of the cricoid cartilage and tilting the lamina backwards (*) and thereby increasing the tension and length of the vocal folds (*). Therefore, contraction of the cricothyroid muscle abducts the vocal folds so that when they vibrate, high pitched sound is produced. By contrast, production of lower pitch sounds require the vocal folds to adduct, narrowing the rima glottidis and thus decreasing vocal fold muscular tension. Nerve supply to the larynx relations to thyroid gland Below the larynx lies the thyroid gland which is one of the larger endocrine glands with an abundant vascular system. The thyroid gland descends to the anterior region of the neck located deep to the sternothyroid and sternohyoid muscles from the level of C5-T1 (*). It consists of two lateral lobes connected by the isthmus that lie on the left and right side of the trachea. There may also be a small pyramidal lobe which has its superior end ascending from the isthmus towards the oblique line. A thin fibrous capsule encompasses the thyroid gland which expands into deeper parenchyma (*) of the gland. The capsule combines with the cricoid cartilage by dense connective tissue forming the suspensory ligament of Berry. Once the ligament of Berry is formed, the RLN can gain access into the larynx (*). Innervation of the larynx is important in the transmission of nerve impulses to and from the brain. The vagus nerve innervates the larynx via the external and internal laryngeal nerves, which are collectively terminal branches of the superior laryngeal nerve (SLN), and via the recurrent laryngeal nerve (RLN). Most intrinsic laryngeal muscles are innervated by the RLN except for cricothyroid muscle which is supplied by the external LN. The external LN descends on the outer fascia of the inferior pharyngeal constrictor muscle (*) in close association with the superior thyroid artery. The external LN can in rare occasions (*) run beneath the sternothyroid muscle, in its course, towards the oblique line of the thyroid cartilage to innervate the cricothyroid muscle. Interestingly, the connection of the artery and nerve is highly variable and new variations have been documented(*): for example, Type 1 anatomy shows the nerve crosses the superior thyroid vessels equal to, or greater than one centimetre superior to the thyroid pole. The internal LN provides sensory fibres to the larynx and the laryngopharynx after penetrating the thyrohyoid membrane. The internal LN further divides into the superior, middle and inferior branches before entering the larynx. The RLN has close contact posterior laterally (*) with the lateral lobes of the thyroid gland. It is termed recurrent because it retrogrades in the chest and continues superiorly back into the neck (*). A close association exists between the superior region of the RLN and the inferior thyroid artery. Like the SLN and the superior artery, this relationship is highly variable. The RLN can be found anterior, posterior, or through the branches of the inferior thyroid artery. The course of the left and right recurrent laryngeal nerves of the RLN reaches the larynx through slightly different routes. The right recurrent LN reaches the larynx after looping around the right subclavian artery and ascending at an oblique angle in the tracheosophageal groove (*). The nerve pierces the inferior constrictor muscle of the pharynx before entering the larynx. The left RLN route differs by looping posteriorly around the aortic arch, but like the right RLN, it ascends in the tracheosophageal groove (*) until reaches the larynx via the inferior constrictor muscle. The two main divisions of the RLN are the anterior and posterior branches. The anterior branch supplies motor fibres to all the intrinsic laryngeal muscles with the exception of cricothyroid( which is supplied by the external LN). The posterior branch is predominantly sensory and transports the sensory fibres from the larynx and laryngopharynx(*). Injury to laryngeal nerves during thyroid surgery The laryngeal nerves carry a high risk for injury during thyroid surgery which manifests voice problems such as changes in pitch and hoarseness. It is well documented that thyroidectomy is the most common cause of injury to the external LN (*). The close relationship that exists between the external LN and the superior thyroid artery predisposes the external LN to injury when the artery is clamped during thyroid surgery. Injury to the external LN results in paralysis of the cricothyroid muscle, coordinator of the vocal folds. Patients with external LN damage lose the ability to forcefully project their voice and additionally lose their upper voice register. This is due to loss of function of the cricothyroid muscle to alter the tension of the vocal folds. Occasionally, the voice becomes monotonous in character. The effects of injury to the external LN are generally subtle and unnoticeable in patients except for those whose careers largely depend on the use of their normal voice such as professional singers and orators(*). Voice function returns to normal after a few months after surgery unless injury to the external LN is permanent. Recurrent laryngeal nerve injury is still of major concern in thyroid surgery, as it is the most frequent post-thyroidectomy complication (*). Injury to the RLN frequently results from common surgical techniques such as suturing, crushing and ligating the nerve and its neighbouring branches. The clamping of the RLN together with the inferior thyroid artery during surgery can severely damage the RLN due to the close proximity of the RLN to the inferior thyroid artery. Seeing as the main functions of the RLN is to innervate the laryngeal muscles and permit abduction and adduction of the vocal folds, injury of the nerve results in paralysis of the vocal fold. In unilateral RLN paralysis, where for example the RLN is completely transacted (*), the voice immediately becomes hoarse because the paralysed vocal fold assumes a paramedian position. The lack of nerve supply results in cord flaccidty in which the paralysed vocal fold gradually atrophies. In addition, the vocal fold is unable to adduct for phonation, and abduct for deep breathing causing inadequate closure of the rima glottidis. Therefore, air will escape during phonation thereby leading to dysphonia (hoarseness). Dysphonia may either stay permanent or decline over time (*).Bilateral lesion of the RLN, however, has more serious complications. The patient with bilateral paralysis have both vocal cords in a paramedian position (*) and cannot be abducted upon inspiration leading to airway obstruction. As a result the patient exhibits biphasic stridor (*) which causes a high-pitched voice and noisy breathing. In the rare occasions the vocal fold will remain permanently paralysed after thyroid surgery and patients may experience a complete loss of voice. Possible techniques to minimise nerve damage Preventing inadvertent injury to the SLN and RLN is crucial in achieving successful thyroid operations which maintains the patients quality of voice. Intraoperative neuromonitoring of the laryngeal nerves is a way of identifying and monitoring the course of the RLN and SLN and thus, preventing its iatrogenic injury during surgery. Patients with unilateral paralysis of the RLN can undergo ansa-RLN reinnervation. Reinnervation restores tone and bulk to the intrinsic laryngeal muscles and hence restores a relatively normal voice,without interfering with the vocal fold function or structure. Conclusion The laryngeal nerves are branches of the vagus nerve. With the exception of the cricothryoid muscle, the RLN innervates the laryngeal muscles which coordinate the vocal folds for phonation. Evidently, the relationship between the RLN and the SLN and the laryngeal muscles are of great importance because damage to the laryngeal nerves result in changes in voice quality. The close relationship between the thyroid vessels and the laryngeal nerves is a primary reason why meticulous techniques are essential in thyroid surgery, to minimise injury to the laryngeal nerves and prevent voice complications. Surgical management of the complications in thyroid surgery have recently experienced great improvements(*) which safely restore the patients normal voice improving their everday life. Fig.1 Anterior and posterior view of the larynx6 Fig2. (Left) anterior view of thyroid gland http://www.trifoundation.com/gfx/ Thyroid_Diagram.jpg REFERENCES Drake,R.L.,Vogl,W and Mitchell, A W M Grays Anatomy for medical students.Elsevier, Churchill, Livingstone 2005 Tortora, G.J., Derrickson,B, Prezbindowski,K.S. Learning guide: Principles of anatomy and physiology, eleventh edition , Wiley 2006 Bliss, R.D., Gauger, P.G and Delbridge, L.W. Surgeons approach to the thyroid gland: surgical anatomy and the importance of technique. World journal of Surgery 24 (8) 891-897, 2000 Chan,W.F.,Lang,B.H.H. and Lo,C.Y.The role of intraoperative neuromonitoring of recurrent laryngeal nerve during thyroidectomy: a comparative study on 1000 nerves at risk. Surgery 140 (6) 866-873,2006 Lee,W.T., Milstein,C.,Hicks,D.,Akst, L.M. and Esclamado, R.M. Results of ansa to recurrent laryngeal nerve innervation. Otolaryngology- Head and Neck Surgery, 136(5) 450-454, 2007 Moore,K.L and Dalley, A.F. Clinically orientated anatomy.5th edition Lippincott Williams Wilkins 2006 Gosling, J.A, Harris P.F., Whitemore, I, Willan P.L.T. Human anatomy color atlas and text,fourth edition, Mosby 2002 Kumar P, Clark M, Clinical Medicine, sixth edition, Elsevier Saunders 2005 Tenta,L.T, Keyes G.R., The otolaryngologic clinics of north America. Volume 13/Number 1, February 1980 www.blackwell-synergy.com http://www.gbmc.org/voice/anatomyphysiologyofthelarynx.cfm Braverman L.E, Utiger R.D , Werner Ingbars the thyroid : a fundamental and clinical text, 8th ed. c2000

Early Entry into the NBA Causes a Negative Impact on Professional Sport

     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Abstract:   Basketball players who enter the NBA early are not ready for the NBA. Early entry into the NBA by high school and college basketball players has had a negative affect on the college basketball program, the NBA, and the players themselves. Each year the number of early entries in the NBA rises more and more. In 1997, 47 basketball players entered the NBA draft early, and the number has risen since then. The college basketball program is drained of talent due to players leaving early. The high school players that go directly into the NBA are hurting the college program because they never contribute to the college program at all. The NBA now has to deal with a higher level of immaturity and disrespect by young players. College basketball players obtain a certain amount of respect and maturity in college. The players suffer by not grasping the concept of learning due to lack of education. Many analysts say that entering the NBA before finishing a fo ur-year program is entering too early. The NBA commissioner, David Stern, has begun to work on ways to encourage players to go to and stay in college. High school and college basketball players have started to enter the NBA earlier and earlier as the year's progress. In general, this is resulting in a negative effect to the college programs, the NBA, and the players themselves. Before 1994 there were usually only eight to ten early entries into the NBA. The number grew to 18 in 1995, and an astonishing 40 players in 1996, and 47 in 1997. The number of early entries in the NBA grows to the point where it is a problem that needs to be dealt with by the NBA players association. College basketball is in serious trouble. Of course, any sport would be when it's marquee s... ...arper, 1994. Curtis, Jake. "The Young and the Restless." San Francisco Chronicle 8 May 1996: E1 Clarkston, Michael. "From Boys to Men." The Toronto Star 28 May 1997: B6 Feldman, Robert. Understanding Psychology. Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2000. Henderson, John. "Skippin' School." The Denver Post 11 March 1999: D1 Livingston, Bill. "Young NBA Players Learn on the Job." The Plain Dealer 17 December 1997: D1 May, Peter. "Exorbitant Salaries." The Boston Globe 11 July 1999: E2 McCallum, Jack. "Going, Going, Gone." Sports Illustrated 20 July 1996: C4 Pensa, Patty. "Early Departures." The Columbus Dispatch 4 July 1999: E2 Wann, Daniel. "Team Identification." Journal of Sports Behavior 7 June 2000: 23 Wilbon, Michael. "Draft Pool." The Washington Post 3 May 2001: D1 Wolff, Alexander. "Impossible Dream." Sports Illustrated 2 July 1997: C4

Motivation by Job Design

Most research in job design suggests taking a look at the aspect of job structure. This structure tells us how these elements in a job are organized can act to increase or decrease effort. When I took a look at the Job Characteristics Model (JCM) it describes five core job dimensions that managers should look into to increase motivation within employees. I have heard employees say â€Å"I only come to work for this easy check, there is nothing to do here but eat, sleep and the most work if any is when a resident decides to act out.I wondered about those statements and ask myself ‘ Do they like their job, do they want to be here, and most of all are they committed or can they become committed? This is why I thought, Motivating by Job Design: The Job Characteristics Model was interesting. The dimensions are as follow, Skill variety, having enough activities in a job â€Å"so the worker can use a number of different skills and talent† (Robbins ; Judge, 2011, â€Å"Motivat ion by Job Design: The Job Characteristics Model†)†¦Task identity, how much of the â€Å"job requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work† (Robbins ; Judge, 2011, â€Å"Motivation by Job Design: The Job Characteristics Model†) meaning that if your job requires doing one or two activities it may score low on the model and may not become experienced, meaningfulness at work. They also my score low on internal work motivation. Task significance is another element in job structure was jobs should be designed to have an impact on employee’s lives or work with other people.Autonomy is an important connection also to job structure because an employee which has no freedom to be independent and discrete in scheduling the work and carry it out will score low on the JCM. The one most important element in job design is feedback, it not only lower absenteeism and turnover but the psychological states of mind of the employee and employer scores high on the â€Å"knowledge of the actual results of the work activities† (Robbins ; Judge, 2011, â€Å"Motivation by Job Design: The Job Characteristics Model†).Scoring high on the five dimensions is critical to the psychological states, resulting in experienced meaningfulness of the work and personal and workout comes are high also such as â€Å"high internal work motivation, quality work performance, satisfaction with the work, and low absenteeism and turnover† (Robbins ; Judge, 2011, â€Å"Motivation by Job Design: The Job Characteristics Model†). Depending on the feedback, employee's growth may need strengthening. Reference Robbins, S. P. , & Judge, T. A. (2011). Motivation: From Concepts to Applications  (14th ed. ). Retrieved from The University of Phoenix eBook Collection database.

Children and Gender

They learn to think by association and knowledge acquired from those that are most often around them. This can lead to negative views on non-specific gender roles, allowing only for a more society-based approach. Sandra BEMA, a psychologist specializing in gender studies, later goes on to define specific features of gender schematics: â€Å"1. Gender schemas develop through an individual's observation of societal classifications of masculinity and femininity, which are evidenced In human anatomy, social roles, and characteristics. 2.Males and females cognitively process and categorize new information in the environment based on its maleness or femaleness. . Self-authorship is displayed by an individual's categorization of and conformity to the sets of elements that belong to either definition of masculinity and femininity' (Hoist 1). As children develop, they learn to associate things by said â€Å"maleness† and â€Å"femaleness† based on society. They are taught that as a male and female, they should do things specific to each gender, setting a foundation for later learning and behavior.According to Deborah Rhode, a Professor of Law at Stanford University, most research shows â€Å"Children receive strong cultural messages about sex-appropriate rats, tasks, and behaviors† (21). At such an early age, when cognitive skills are developing and when children are learning by viewing what Is around them, children start to figure out how to act based off of their certain gender. Boys are taught that they must be forceful and girls need to be motherly, while seeing advantages and disadvantages to being of a certain sex.A study In Michigan on elementary students showed that the children were able to acknowledge the fact that there are indeed â€Å"gender hierarchies† or better or worse genders (Rhode 22). â€Å"When 1,100 students ere asked to describe what life would be like If they were the opposite sex, over 40 percent of the girls saw a dvantages to being male: they would have better Jobs, higher incomes, and more respect. Ninety-five percent of the boys saw no advantage to being female, and a substantial number thought suicide would be preferable† (22).How is it that at such a young age, the idea of suicide has already been associated with being female? Children are being taught this way, even If indirectly; children learn by seeing and hearing. Rhode even declares that â€Å"by age two, toddlers have ex-linked toy preferences; by age three they can identify certain occupations as more appropriate for each sex; and between ages four and six they separate into same-sex groups† (23). Gender Identity comes at such an early age before â€Å"escalate[d] with anatomical differences† (23).When children are learning that gender is related to all of these other things before even learning the physical, 1 OFF makeup of a person that makes them either male or female, which should be the factor for this as sociation. Gender schematics refers to organization based on feminine and masculine disagrees. Most parents allow their children to recognize this (not as the term but as the concept) by â€Å"offer[ins] differential opportunities for learning based on their children's sex† (Shoal, Sifter, and Patriots 2).In practice, children tend to remove themselves from situations where learning becomes â€Å"gender-inappropriate† for them (Shoal, Sifter, and Patriots 2). In a study of 178 kindergarten and grade four students and their parents, girls showed signs of being less gender-schematic than boys. â€Å"Simple comparisons indicated that boys with gender-typed fathers and non- ender-typed mothers were more schematic than girls with the same parent gender classification, than girls with non-gender-typed mothers and gender-typed fathers, and than boys with two non-gender-typed parents† (Shoal, Sifter, and Patriots 1).Gender typing is when children acquire masculine or fe minine roles and identify with these said roles. When children are heavily influenced by their parents, and one parent is gender typed, then typically this will have an impact on the child. Children should not be taught how to act based upon certain gender-related reminisces, but instead the more androgynous approach. This approach, or combination of gender-related characteristics, will give them the middle ground to choose for themselves as they further develop.David Opened, marriage sociologist, insists that when raising a child, parents should overlap parental roles. â€Å"Men should become more nurturing and share homemaking activities† as women â€Å"in the workplace† (Opened 5 and 6). He suggests that gender roles of parents are learned and can easily be translated into mothers and fathers doing both gender-specific roles. Opened also claims that while renting should take on a more androgynous approach, traditional mother-father roles should not be forgotten. â⠂¬Å"Family organization based on (†¦ ) biological differences between men and women† (Opened 6).This is an appropriate way to combine newer and more traditional parenting styles so that children will be able to grow in an environment not solely based on the roles of any specific gender. There is sure to be opposition to this, with many suggesting that the nuclear family should be kept intact with all the initial principles that go along with it. However, when children re seeing the value in being one gender over another based on society's idea of gender-specifics, then the nuclear family is the last thing that should be worried about.The gender schema theory allows people to â€Å"simplify a large body of knowledge and apply this knowledge easily to themselves and to others† (Attenuate et al. 137). We are able to determine the gender of someone due to â€Å"cues (†¦ ) culturally created gender cues (†¦ ) biological† (Attenuate et al. 137). For obvi ous reasons, it is more difficult for children to assess the gender of other children based on biological aspects. Therefore, they must use these culturally created gender cues to analyze this (I. E. Hair style, colors, etc. . Studies were done to attest to this notion, trying to reach more unconventional conclusions as to what makes a boy a boy and a girl a girl. Small children were asked to draw a picture off boy and a girl, and later gender schemas do not develop before their unconventional gender schemas† (Attenuate et al. 137). The younger children in the studies came up with reasons for each being of a certain gender not based on stereotypes, but more in unconventional, such as â€Å"no legs† or â€Å"she's a pirate† (Attenuate et al. 142).The children a few years older came to the conclusion that girl's had long hair and wore pink while boys had short hair and wore boy clothes. This knowledge of what it means to be a boy and a girl has to start from an ear ly age. From the time a child is born, they are subjugated to stereotyping typical boy/ girl behaviors. Parents want to let the world know if they have a son or a daughter, and this is easily done through dressing a child; a girl is given pink things while a boy s given blue. This inserts gender-specific knowledge into their mindset that only develops over time.This negative approach puts any form of androgyny into the background, thus becoming an outcast to an infant. â€Å"Parents encourage sex-typed activities (†¦ ) doll-playing and housekeeping for girls and trucks and sports for boys† (Witt 253). This encouragement only gives them further reason to gender-type jobs in society, making women appropriate for keeping up the house and family, while men are out working. Children should be taught that these Jobs can be interrelated between both genders and that Job qualification does not refer to what sex you are born as.Witt states that children even as young as two have an â€Å"awareness of adult sex role differences† (253). In today's society, it is quite common to see both genders participating in activities that were once considered gender-specific only. Women run for president, are doctors, are top sports players, etc. On the other spectrum, men are engaging in managing the upkeep of homes, salon employees, nurses, etc. The barriers are slowly becoming hazy and the apprehension of the wrong gender in he workplace is slowly deteriorating. What needs to be considered first and foremost is that this all starts with family.